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History
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Ancient Egypt
Tools and artifacts indicate that humans lived in the Nile valley beginning about 60,000 years ago. Archaeological findings point to the emergence of a dominant political and religious culture in the Nile valley by about 3300 BC. Shortly thereafter, Menes—considered the first pharaoh—conquered the delta and the narrow strip of cultivated land along the Nile, uniting Upper and Lower Egypt.
Historians divide Egyptian civilization into four epochs: the Old, Middle, and New kingdoms, and the Late Period. These eras are separated from each another by, respectively, the First, Second, and Third Intermediate periods. During these times the political divisions of Middle and Upper Egypt broke apart under the influence of weak rulers, fragmenting the central government and disrupting the administrative authority of the country.
Early Egyptians lived under an absolute ruler, the pharaoh, who was revered as a god. Only the pharaohs' responsibility to their people constrained their divine right. In later eras, pharaohs were still considered divine but ruled primarily through political and military power.
The first great period of Egyptian culture is known as the Old Kingdom (about 2755–2255 BC), which included the Third to Sixth dynasties. The Third Dynasty is known as a golden age of cultural freshness and energy. Literature and medicine advanced, and the priests, attempting to reconcile the chaotic collection of gods and goddesses, codified Egypt's theologies. In order to deal with affairs of state and to administer construction projects, the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. The first pyramids were built at this time.
A vigorous cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom (2134–1784 BC) developed under the Eleventh Dynasty Theban rulers. Architecture was characterized by purity of line and controlled proportions. Superb decorative arts were produced, especially precious metal jewelry and faience—including the well-known blue-glazed hippopotamuses decorated with painted water plants.
The 16th century BC marked the beginning of a period of international conquest, called the New Kingdom (1570–1070 BC). Warrior pharaohs established military posts along the upper Nile and far into Nubia and Syria, ending Egypt's political isolation. Immigrants from throughout the empire swelled Egypt's population, introducing new customs, fashions, and languages.
Persian invaders occupied Egypt in the sixth century BC until 332 BC, when invasion by the forces of Alexander the Great brought an end to Persian rule. After his death in 323 BC, Alexander's generals divided his empire. Ptolemy took Egypt and in 306 BC declared himself pharaoh, establishing Egypt's last dynasty.
Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, at various times extending its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands. Under the Ptolemies, Alexandria became the cultural and intellectual center of the ancient world. The Ptolemaic line ended with the suicide of Cleopatra in 30 BC.
Coptic Christianity
For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans controlled Egypt. They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its supply of grain.
When Roman Emperor Constantine came to power, he converted to Christianity; in AD 313 he gave imperial sanction to the Church doctrine. The new Roman orthodoxy was somewhat at variance with the established Christianity of Egyptians, known as Coptic Christianity. Religious conflicts erupted. In the end, the Copts formally seceded and appointed their own patriarch of Alexandria.
Islamic Egypt
From AD 641–1517 Egypt was ruled by governors appointed by the caliph, leader of the Muslim community. In 1517, the Turkish sultan Selim declared Egypt a Turkish possession, part of the Ottoman Empire.
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798 and occupied the country until 1801, marking the beginning of renewed European interest in Egypt. In 1805 Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population. He established Egypt on a firm economic footing, importing Western technology and culture. Through warfare, Ali extended the Egyptian empire to the Arabian Peninsula and the Sudan.
Egypt Under France and Britain
After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly under European influence. British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short route to India, and as a source for cotton for English mills. British promises to evacuate Egypt diminished as Egypt and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. When Turkey entered World War I on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate.
After the war, Egypt erupted in violent protest over British rule. Violence continued until 1922, when Britain declared Egypt an independent monarchy under King Fuad I, reserving the right to defend Egypt and protect the Suez Canal. By the terms of a 1936 treaty, British forces were to withdraw from Egypt, excepting the canal zone. At the start of World War II, Egypt remained neutral. The British defeated Nazi troops in the battle of El Alamein in 1942.
Modern Egypt
In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the government for the campaign's lack of success, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad's son. In 1952 a group of army officers led by General Mohammed Naguib ousted the king. Egypt was declared a republic in 1953.
Naguib relinquished power in 1954 to Gamal Abdel Nasser, who was officially elected in 1956. Nasser first followed a pro-Western policy and negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954, ending 72 years of British occupation. He soon became an advocate of Arab unity, and his relations with the West deteriorated.
In 1956 the United States and Britain withdrew financial support from Nasser's Aswan High Dam project. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and sought to use its revenues to finance the dam. Angered, Britain and France, primary stockholders in the canal, joined with Israel in attacking Egypt in 1956. World pressure forced a cessation of hostilities, and a United Nations (UN) emergency force occupied the canal zone. In 1958 Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic.
In 1967, after the withdrawal of UN troops, Egypt blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli ships. Israel attacked Egypt, resulting in a six-day war that left Israel in possession of the Sinai Peninsula. Nasser died suddenly in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar al-Sadat, a longtime colleague.
Skirmishes between Egypt and Israel had been continuing since 1969. Sadat unsuccessfully tried negotiation, then secretly planned a war against Israel. In 1973 on 6 October—Yom Kippur, one of the holiest day on the Jewish calendar—Egypt launched an air and artillery assault across the Suez Canal. The UN imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces was established between the Egyptian and the Israeli armies. Although Egypt did not win the Yom Kippur war, it effectively challenged the 1967 boundaries, regained control of the Suez Canal, and helped Sadat establish close relations with the U.S.
In November 1977, Sadat addressed the Israeli Knesset, or parliament, pleading for a peace settlement. The two nations signed a peace treaty in Washington, D.C., on 26 March 1979.
The Arab world denounced Egypt for its separate peace with Israel, and some Arab leaders labeled Sadat a traitor. Egyptian opposition to Sadat increased, especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation with Israel. Sadat was assassinated on 6 October 1981. He was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. An assassin failed in an attempt to kill Mubarak in 1995.
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